Ngaphambi kobana amalwelwe aqede amalwelwe angaba ziingidigidi ezi-3 nofana ngaphezulu, umuthi lo wasiza ukwakha i-Amerikha enebubulo. Ukubuyisela ubukhazikhazi babo obulahlekileko, kungatlhogeka bona samukele begodu silungise imvelo.
Ngesinye isikhathi ngo-1989, u-Herbert Darling wathola umtato: Umzingeli wamtjela bona uhlangane nomuthi omude we-American chestnut endaweni ka-Darling e-Zor Valley engeTjingalanga ye-New York. U-Darling bekazi bona ama-chestnut akhe waba ngomunye wemithi eqakatheke khulu endaweni. Bekazi nokuthi isikhunta esibulalako sapheze saqeda imihlobo leyo isikhathi esingaphezu kwekhulu nehhafu yeminyaka. Lokha nakazwa umbiko womzingeli ngokubona i-chestnut ephilako, isiqu se-chestnut besineenyawo ezimbili ubude begodu sifinyelela esakhiweni esinezitezi ezihlanu, wathandabuza. "Anginasiqiniseko sokuthi ngiyakholwa bona uyazi na," kutjho u-Darling.
Lokha u-Darling nakathola umuthi, bekufana nokuqala umuntu ongakajayeleki. Wathi: "Bekulula begodu kuphelele ukwenza isibonelo-bekukuhle khulu." Kodwana u-Darling wabona nokuthi isihlahla besifa. Solo kwasekuthomeni kwabo-1900, sele ihlaselwe bulwelwe obufanako, okulinganiselwa bona bubangele ukuhlongakala kwabantu abaziingidigidi ezi-3 nofana ngaphezulu ngebanga lamalwelwe anjalo. Lokhu mkhuhlane wokuthoma othwalwa babantu obhubhisa khulu imithi emlandwini wanamhlanjesi. U-Darling wacabanga, nangabe angeze akghone ukusindisa umuthi loyo, uzokusindisa imbewu yawo. Kunomraro munye kwaphela: umuthi awenzi litho ngombana akukho eminye imithi yama-chestnut eduze engawufaka impova.
U-Darling ngusonjinyera osebenzisa iindlela zosonjinyera ukurarulula imiraro. NgoMgwengweni olandelako, lokha amathuthumbo aphuzi aphaphathekileko nakasakazeke phezu kwesihlahla esihlaza satjani, u-Darling wazalisa iinhlamvu nge-shot powder, eyathathwa emathuthumbo wesilisa wesinye isihlahla se-chestnut ebekayifundile, begodu watjhayela waya enyakatho. Kwathatha i-awa nesiquntu. Wadubula isihlahla ngendizamtjhini ebeyiqashiwe. (Uphethe ikhamphani yokwakha ephumelelako engakghona ukuthenga imali enengi.) Umzamo lo wahluleka. Ngomnyaka olandelako, u-Darling walinga godu. Kulesisikhathi, yena nendodanakhe badosa isikhafu baya ema-chestnuts phezulu entabeni begodu bakha iplatifomu ephakeme ngamamitha ama-80 emavikini angaphezu kwamabili. Othandekako wami wakhwela umpheme wakhuhla amathuthumbo ngamathuthumbo afana nempethu komunye umuthi we-chestnut.
Ngalelo kuwa, amagatja womthi ka-Darling akhiqiza ama-burrs ahlanganiswe ngameva aluhlaza. Ameva la begade aqinile begodu abukhali kangangobana bekangathathwa njenge-cacti. Isivuno asiphezulu, kunamantongomani angaba likhulu, kodwana u-Darling utjale amanye begodu wabeka ithemba. Yena nomnganakhe baphinde bathintana no-Charles Maynard no-William Powell, izazi ezimbili zezakhi zofuzo zemithi e-State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry e-Syracuse (u-Chuck no-Bill bahlongakala). Mhlapha nje bathoma iphrojekthi yokurhubhulula i-chestnut ngebhajethi encani lapho. U-Darling wabanikela ama-chestnut begodu wabuza abososayensi bona bangazisebenzisa na ukuzibuyisa. U-Darling wathi: "Lokhu kubonakala kuyinto ehle khulu." "I-United States yoke epumalanga." Kodwana, ngemva kweminyaka embalwa, umuthi wakhe wafa.
Solo ama-Europe athoma ukuhlala e-North America, indatjana yamahlathi wezwekazi sele ilahlekelwe khulu. Kodwana, isiphakamiso saka-Darling sele sithathwa babantu abanengi njengelinye lamathuba athembisako wokuthoma ukubuyekeza indatjana – ekuthomeni komnyaka lo, i-Templeton World Charity Foundation yabeka u-Maynard no-Powell's Iphrojekthi yanikela inengi lomlando wayo, begodu umzamo lo wakghona ukudiliza umsebenzi omncani owabiza imali engaphezu kwe-$3 yezigidi. Bekusipho esikhulu khulu esake sanikelwa eyunivesithi. Irhubhululo lezazi zezakhi zofuzo likatelela izazi zebhoduluko bona ziqalane nethemba ngendlela etja begodu kesinye isikhathi engakhululekiko, ukuthi ukulungisa iphasi lemvelo akutjho ukubuyela esivandeni se-Edeni. Kunalokho, kungatjho ukwamukela indima esiyithathileko: unjiniyela wayo yoke into kufaka hlangana imvelo.
Amakari we-chestnut made begodu anamazinyo, begodu abukeka njengeenhluthu ezimbili ezincani ezihlaza satjani ezihlangeneko emthanjeni ophakathi wekari. Ngakelinye ihlangothi, amakari amabili ahlanganiswe nesiqu. Ngakelinye ihlangothi, zenza isihloko esibukhali, esivamise ukugoba siye ngehlangothini. Ubujamo obungakalindeleki busika phakathi kweendunduma ezihlaza satjani ezithulileko nezesihlabathi emahlathini, begodu ukucabanga okumangalisako kwabakhweli beenyawo kwavusa ukutjheja kwabantu, kwabakhumbuza ngekhambo labo ehlathini ebegade linemithi eminengi enamandla.
Kuphela ngemitlolo nememori esingazizwisisa ngokuzeleko imithi le. U-Lucille Griffin, umnqophisi omkhulu we-American Chestnut Collaborator Foundation, wake watlola bona lapho uzokubona ama-chestnut anothileko kangangobana entwasahlobo, amathuthumbo akhilimu, alandelana esihlahleni "njengamagagasi anegwebu agijimela phasi entabeni", okurholela ekukhumbuleni ubabamkhulu. Ekwindla, umuthi uzokuqhuma godu, kulokhu kube nama-burrs ahlabako amboza ubumnandi. "Lokha ama-chestnut nasele avuthiwe, ngabuthelela isigamu sebhasheli ebusika," u-Thoreau onethando watlola ku-"Walden." "Ngesikhathi leso, bekuthabisa khulu ukuzulazula ehlathini lama-chestnut e-Lincoln ngesikhatheso."
Ama-chestnuts athembeke khulu. Ngokungafani nemithi ye-oak ewisa ama-acorn eminyakeni embalwa, imithi yama-chestnut ikhiqiza inani elikhulu leentjalo ze-nut qobe ekwindla. Ama-chestnuts nawo kulula ukugayeka: ungawahluba bese uwadla ahlaza. (Linga ukusebenzisa ama-acorn ane-tannins-nofana ungakwenzi.) Woke umuntu udla ama-chestnuts: inyamazana, i-squirrel, ibhere, inyoni, umuntu. Abalimi bayadedela iingulube zabo begodu bakhuluphele ehlathini. Ngesikhathi sikaKresmusi, iintimela ezizele ama-chestnut bezisuka eentabeni ziye edorobheni. Iye, gade batjhiswa mlilo. "Kuthiwa kezinye iindawo, abalimi bathola imali enengi ngokuthengisa ama-chestnut ukudlula yoke eminye imikhiqizo yezokulima," kutjho u-William L. Bray, umphathi wokuthoma wesikolo lapho u-Maynard no-Powell basebenza khona. Itlolwe ngo-1915. Ngumuthi wabantu, inengi lawo likhula ehlathini.
Godu inikela ngokungaphezu kokudla kwaphela. Imithi yama-chestnut ingakhuphuka ibe ziinyawo ezili-120, begodu amafidi wokuthoma ama-50 awaphazanyiswa magatja nofana amafindo. Lokhu kuliphupho labagawuli beenkuni. Nanyana ingasi sigodo esihle khulu nofana esiqinileko, sikhula msinyana khulu, khulukhulu lokha nasibuye sihlume ngemva kokusikwa begodu singaboli. Njengoba ukuqina kwamathayi wesitimela namapali wefoni kwadlula ubuhle, i-Chestnut yasiza ukwakha i-Amerikha enebubulo. Iinkulungwana zezibaya, amakhabini namasonto enziwe ngama-chestnut zisamile; umtloli ngo-1915 walinganisela bona lo bekumhlobo wemithi egawulwa khulu e-United States.
Eendaweni ezinengi zepumalanga-imithi isukela e-Mississippi ukuya e-Maine, begodu ukusuka eligwini le-Atlantic ukuya e-Mississippi River-ama-chestnuts nawo ngenye yawo. Kodwana e-Appalachians, bekumuthi omkhulu. Iingidigidi zama-chestnut zihlala eentabeni lezi.
Kuyafaneleka bona i-Fusarium wilt yavela kokuthoma e-New York, okuyisango lokungena ebantwini abanengi be-America. Ngomnyaka ka-1904, kwatholakala ukutheleleka okungakajayeleki emagxolweni womuthi we-chestnut obekasengozini yokutjhabalala e-Bronx Zoo. Abarhubhululi bathola msinyana bona i-fungus eyabangela ukubola kwebhaktheriya (eyabizwa ngokuthi yi-Cryphonectria parasitica) yafika emithini ye-Japan eyavela ngaphandle ngo-1876. (Kuvamise ukuba nesikhathi esithileko hlangana nokungeniswa komhlobo nokutholakala kwemiraro ebonakalako.)
Msinyana abantu emazweni amanengi babika bona imithi iyafa. Ngo-1906, u-William A. Murrill, isazi se-mycologist e-New York Botanical Garden, wagadangisa i-atikili yokuthoma yesayensi malungana nobulwelwe lobu. U-Muriel waveza bona isikhunta lesi sibanga ukutheleleka kwamabhamuza anombala onsundu emagxolweni womthi we-chestnut, okwenza bona uhlanzeke eduze nesiqu. Lokha izakhamzimba namanzi kungasakghoni ukugeleza phezulu naphasi emithanjeni yamagxolo ngaphasi kwegxolo, yoke into engaphezu kwendandatho yokufa izokufa.
Abanye abantu abakwazi ukucabanga-nofana abafuni abanye bacabange-isihlahla esinyamalala ehlathini. Ngo-1911, i-Sober Paragon Chestnut Farm, ikhamphani yeenkulisa e-Pennsylvania, beyikholelwa bona ubulwele "bebungaphezu kokwesaba kwaphela." Ubukhona besikhathi eside beentatheli ezingenasibopho. Iplasi lavalwa ngo-1913. Eminyakeni emibili eyadlulako, i-Pennsylvania yabiza ikomidi yesifo se-chestnut, ebegade igunyazwe ukusebenzisa i-US$275,000 (imali enengi khulu ngesikhatheso), begodu yamemezela iphakheji yamandla wokuthatha amagadango wokulwisana nobuhlungu lobu, okufaka hlangana ilungelo lokutjhabalalisa imithi endaweni yangasese. Iingcwethi zezifo ziphakamisa bona kususwe yoke imithi yama-chestnut ngaphakathi kwamamayela ambalwa ngaphambili kokutheleleka okukhulu ukukhiqiza umphumela wokukhandela umlilo. Kodwana kuvela bona isikhunta lesi singagxuma siye emithini engakatheleleki, begodu ama-spore waso atheleleke ngumoya, iinyoni, iinambuzane nabantu. Ihlelo lalahlwa.
Ngo-1940, pheze bekunganama-chestnut amakhulu ebegade atheleleke. Namhlanjesi, inani lamabhiliyoni wamadola lisulwe. Njengombana i-fusarium wilt ingakghoni ukuphila ehlabathini, imirabhu yama-chestnut iragela phambili nokuhluma, begodu ngaphezu kweengidi ezima-400 yayo isasele ehlathini. Kodwana, i-Fusarium wilt yathola indawo yokugcina amanzi esihlahleni se-oki lapho gade ihlala khona ngaphandle kokubanga umonakalo omkhulu kumsingathi wayo. Ukusuka lapho, msinyana irhatjheka ibe ziintjalo ezitjha ze-chestnut bese iwabuyisela phasi, kanengi ngaphambi kobana ifike esigabeni sokuqhakaza.
Ibubulo leengodo lithole ezinye iindlela: i-oki, iphayini, i-walnut, kanye nomlotha. Ukutjhugulula, enye ibubulo elikhulu elithembele emithini yama-chestnut, sele litjhugulukele eensetjenzisweni zokwenziwa. Ebalimini abanengi abatlhagako, akukho okufanele batjhugulule: akukho omunye umuthi wendawo onikela abalimi neenlwana zabo amakhalori namaphrotheyini wamahhala, athembekileko begodu amanengi. Ukulimala kwe-chestnut kungathiwa kuqeda umkhuba ovamileko wokulima kwabantu be-Appalachian, okugandelela abantu bendawo leyo bona babe nokukhetha okusobala: ukuya emgodini wamalahle nofana ukusuka. Isazi-mlando u-Donald Davis watlola ngo-2005 wathi: "Ngenxa yokufa kwama-chestnuts, umhlaba woke uhlongakele, okuqeda amasiko wokuphila ebegade akhona eentabeni ze-Appalachian iminyaka engaphezu kwamakhulu amane."
U-Powell wakhula kude nama-Appalachians nama-chestnuts. Uyise wakhonza e-Air Force begodu wathuthela emndeninakhe: e-Indiana, e-Florida, e-Germany, ne-east coast ye-Maryland. Nanyana ahlala isikhathi eside e-New York, iinkulumo zakhe bezigcina ukukhululeka kwe-Midwest kanye nokuthatha ihlangothi okufihlakeleko kodwana okubonakalako kwe-South. Ukuziphatha kwakhe okulula kanye nesitayela sakhe sokuthunga esilula kuyahambisana, kufaka amajini anokujikeleza kwehembe elinama-plaid elibonakala lingapheli. Ikulumo yakhe ayithandako ngu-“wow”.
U-Powell uhlela ukuba ngudorhodere wezilwane bekube kulapho uphrofesa wezefuzo amthembisa ithemba lokulima okutjha, okuhlaza okusekelwe eentjalweni ezitjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo ezingakhiqiza amandla wazo wokukhandela iinunwana namalwelwe. “Ngicabange, hawu, akusikuhle ukwenza iintjalo ezingazivikela eenlwaneni, begodu akutlhogeki bona ufafaze nanyana ngiziphi iinbulalantwala kizo?” Kutjho u-Powell. "Kuliqiniso, iphasi loke alilandeli umqondo ofanako."
Lokha u-Powell nakafika esikolweni se-Utah State University ngo-1983, bekanganandaba. Kodwana, kwenzeke bona ajoyine ilabhorethri yesazi sezinto eziphilako, begodu bekasebenza ngegciwane elingaqeda amandla we-blight fungus. Imizamo yabo yokusebenzisa ivayirasi le azange ikhambe kuhle: azange irhatjheke ukusuka esihlahleni ukuya esihlahleni ngokwayo, yeke kwafanela bona yenzelwe imihlobo eminengi ye-fungal. Nanyana kunjalo, u-Powell wathaba khulu ngendaba yomuthi omkhulu owawela phasi begodu wanikela ngesisombululo sesayensi sokwenzeka kwamaphutha abuhlungu enziwa babantu. Wathi: "Ngebanga lokuphathwa kumbi kwepahla yethu ekhamba ephasini loke, singenise ngephutha amagciwane." "Ngacabanga: Hawu, lokhu kuyathakazelisa. Kunethuba lokukubuyisa."
U-Powell bekangasimzamo wokuthoma wokuqeda ukulahlekelwa. Ngemva kobana kwacaca bona ama-chestnut we-America azokuhluleka, i-USDA yalinga ukutjala imithi yama-chestnut we-China, umzala onjamelana nokubuna, ukuzwisisa bona umhlobo lo ungathatha indawo yama-chestnut we-America. Kodwana, ama-chestnut akhula khulu ngaphandle, begodu afana nemithi yezithelo kunemithi yezithelo. Bebancani ehlathini ziinhlahla ze-oak nezinye iinqhema ze-America. Ukukhula kwazo kuyavinjelwa, nofana ziyafa. Abososayensi bazama nokuzalanisa ama-chestnuts avela e-United States ne-China ndawonye, ​​ngethemba lokukhiqiza umuthi oneemfanelo ezihle zombili. Imizamo karhulumende yehluleka begodu yalahlwa.
U-Powell wagcina asebenza e-State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry, lapho ahlangana khona no-Chuck Maynard, isazi sezakhi zofuzo esatjala imithi elabhorethri. Eminyakeni embalwa eyadlulako, abososayensi bakha isicubu seentjalo sokuthoma esitjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo-bangezelela ijini elinikela ukujamelana nama-antibiotic kugwayi ukwenzela ukutjengiswa kwezobuchwepheshe kunokobana zisetjenziselwe ukuthengisa. U-Maynard (Maynard) wathoma ukusebenzisa ithekhnoloji etja, ngesikhathi afuna ithekhnoloji ewusizo ehlobene nayo. Ngaleso sikhathi, u-Darling bekaneentjalo neentjhijilo: ukulungisa ama-chestnuts we-America.
Eminyakeni eyizinkulungwane yemikhuba yokuzalanisa iintjalo, abalimi (kanye nabososayensi bakamuva) bahlanganise imihlobo eneemfanelo ezifunwako. Bese, amajini ahlanganiswa ndawonye ngokwemvelo, begodu abantu bakhetha imihlanganisela ethembisako yekhwalithi ephezulu-ekulu, isithelo esimnandi khulu nofana ukujamelana namalwelwe. Ngokuvamileko, kuthatha iinzukulwana ezinengi ukukhiqiza umkhiqizo. Ikambiso le iyaphuza begodu iyadida. U-Darling wazibuza bona indlela le ingakhiqiza umuthi omuhle njengemvelo yakhe. Wangitjela wathi: “Ngicabanga bona singenza ngcono.”
Ubunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo kutjho ukulawula okukhulu: ngitjho nanyana ijini elithileko livela emhlobeni ongakahlobani, lingakhethelwa umnqopho othileko bese lifakwa ku-genome yenye into ephilako. (Izinto eziphilako ezinamajini avela emihlobeni ehlukileko "zitjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo." Mhlapha nje, abososayensi benze amaqhinga wokuhlela ngqo i-genome yezinto eziphilako ezihlosiweko.) Ithekhnoloji le ithembisa ukunemba nokurhaba okungakaze kubonwe. U-Powell ukholelwa bona lokhu kubonakala kufanele khulu kuma-chestnuts we-America, awabiza ngokuthi "imithi epheleleko"-eqinileko, emide, begodu inemithombo yokudla, etlhoga ukulungiswa okuthileko kwaphela: ukujamelana nokubola kwebhaktheriya.
Othandekako ngiyavuma. Wathi: "Kufanele sibe nabonjiniyela ebhizinisini lethu." "Kusukela ekwakhiweni ukuya ekwakhiweni lokhu kuhlobo lokuzenzakalela."
U-Powell no-Maynard balinganisela bona kungathatha iminyaka elitjhumi ukuthola amajini anikela ukujamelana, ukuthuthukisa ithekhnoloji yokuwafaka ku-genome ye-chestnut, bese uwakhulisa. "Siqagela nje," kutjho u-Powell. "Akekho umuntu onezakhi zofuzo ezinikela ukujamelana ne-fungal. Kwamambala sithome esikhaleni esinganalitho."
U-Darling wafuna isekelo ku-American Chestnut Foundation, ihlangano engenzi inzuzo eyasungulwa ekuthomeni kwabo-1980. Umdosiphambili wayo wamtjela bona ulahlekile. Zizibophelele ekuhlanganiseni begodu zihlala ziqaphele ngobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo, okuvuse ukuphikiswa ziingcwethi zebhoduluko. Ngalokho-ke, u-Darling wakha ihlangano yakhe engenzi inzuzo ukubhadela umsebenzi wobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo. U-Powell wathi ihlangano itlolele isheke lokuthoma ku-Maynard no-Powell nge-$30,000. (Ngo-1990, ihlangano yesitjhaba yatjhugulula begodu yamukela isiqhema se-Darling sokuhlukana njengegatja layo lokuthoma lombuso, kodwana amanye amalunga bekasathandabuza namkha azonda ngokupheleleko ubunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo.)
U-Maynard no-Powell basemsebenzini. Pheze khonokho, isikhathi sabo esilinganiselweko sabonakala singasiqiniso. Isiqabo sokuthoma kukuthola bona ungatjalwa njani ama-chestnuts elabhorethri. U-Maynard walinga ukuhlanganisa amakari we-chestnut kanye nehomoni yokukhula esitjeni seplastiki esiyindilinga esingajulileko, indlela esetjenziselwa ukutjala ama-poplar. Kuvela bona lokhu akusikho kwamambala. Imithi emitjha angeze yakhula imirabhu namahlumela avela kumaseli akhethekileko. U-Maynard wathi: "Ngingumrholi wephasi loke ekubulaleni imithi yama-chestnut." Umrhubhululi we-Yunivesithi ye-Georgia, u-Scott Merkle (u-Scott Merkle) ekugcineni wafundisa u-Maynard bona angasuka njani ekutheni kube nempova ukuya eentjalweni ezilandelako ema-embryo asesigabeni sokukhula.
Ukuthola ijini elifaneleko-umsebenzi ka-Powell-nakho kwaba yinselele. Waqeda iminyaka eminengi arhubhulula ikhompawundi elwa namagciwani esekelwe emajini weensele, kodwana watjhiya ikhompawundi leyo ngebanga lokutshwenyeka ngokuthi umphakathi ungeze wamukela imithi enamaxoxo. Wabuye wafuna ijini elwisana nokubola kwamabhaktheriya ema-chestnuts, kodwana wathola bona ukuvikela umuthi kufaka hlangana amajini amanengi (bathola okungenani asithandathu). Bese kuthi ngo-1997, umsebenzisani wabuya emhlanganweni wezesayensi begodu wabhala isifinyezo nesethulo. U-Powell waveza isihloko esithi "Ukuvezwa kwe-oxalate oxidase eentjalweni ezitjhugululiweko kunikela ukujamelana ne-oxalate kanye ne-fungi ekhiqiza i-oxalate". Ngokwerhubhululo lakhe ngegciwane, u-Powell bekazi bona i-wilt fungi ikhupha i-oxalic acid ukubulala amagxolo we-chestnut begodu yenze kube lula ukugayeka. U-Powell wabona bona nangabe i-chestnut ingakhiqiza i-oxalate oxidase yayo (iphrotheyini ekhethekileko engaqeda i-oxalate), khona-ke ingakghona ukuzivikela. Wathi: "Lokho bekumzuzu wami we-Eureka."
Kuvela bona iintjalo ezinengi zinejini elenza bona zikwazi ukukhiqiza i-oxalate oxidase. Kumrhubhululi owenza ikulumo, u-Powell wathola uhlobo lwekoroyi. Umfundi othweswe iziqu u-Linda Polin McGuigan wenze ngcono ithekhnoloji "ye-gene gun" ukufaka amajini ema-embryo we-chestnut, ngethemba lokuthi angafakwa ku-DNA ye-embryo. Ijini lahlala isikhatjhana emntwaneni, kodwana lanyamalala. Isiqhema serhubhululo satjhiya indlela le begodu satjhugulukela ebhaktheriyani eyathuthukisa indlela yokusika i-DNA yezinye iinlwana bese ifaka amajini wazo. Emvelweni, ama-microorganisms afaka amajini agandelela umsingathi bona enze ukudla kwamagciwane. Iingcwethi zezakhi zofuzo zihlasele ibhaktheriya le ukwenzela bona ikwazi ukufaka nanyana ngiyiphi ijini usosayensi ayifunako. U-McGuigan wathola ikghono lokufaka ngokuthembeka amajini wekoroyi namaphrotheyini wamamaki kuma-embryo we-chestnut. Lokha iphrotheyini nayikhanyiswa ngaphasi kwesibonakhulu, iphrotheyini izokukhipha umkhanyo ohlaza satjani, okutjengisa ukufakwa okuphumeleleko. (Isiqhema salisa msinyana ukusebenzisa amaphrotheyini wamamaki-akekho obekafuna umuthi ongakhanya.) U-Maynard wabiza indlela le ngokuthi "yinto ehle khulu ephasini."
Ngokukhamba kwesikhathi, u-Maynard no-Powell bakha umzila wokuhlanganisa ama-chestnut, osele udlulela emafulethini amanengi wesakhiwo esihle khulu sokurhubhulula amahlathi esenziwe ngama-1960, kanye nendawo etja ekhazimulako engaphandle kwekhampasi “i-Biotech Accelerator”. Ikambiso yokuthoma ifaka hlangana ukukhetha imibungu emila emaseli afanako ngokwezakhi zofuzo (imibungu eminengi eyenziwe elebhu ayikwenzi lokhu, njeke akusizi ngalitho ukwenza ama-clone) bese ufaka amajini wekoroyi. Amaseli we-embryo, njenge-agar, yinto efana ne-pudding ekhutjhwe e-algae. Ukuze umbungu ube muthi, abarhubhululi bafaka ihomoni yokukhula. Amakhulu wezitja zeplastiki ezibunjwe njenge-cube ezinemithi emincani yama-chestnut engenampande zingafakwa etjhelfini ngaphasi kwesibane esinamandla esikhanyako. Ekugcineni, abososayensi basebenzisa i-hormone yokukhulisa imirabhu, batjala imithi yabo yokuthoma emabhodweni azele ihlabathi, bese bayifaka ngaphakathi kwekamelo lokukhula elilawulwa lizinga lokutjhisa. Akumangalisi bona imithi eselabhorethri isesimeni esimbi ngaphandle. Ngalokho-ke, abarhubhululi bazihlanganisa nemithi yeganga ukukhiqiza amasampula aqinileko kodwana asajamelana nokuhlolwa esimini.
Ehlobo ezimbili ezidlulileko, u-Hannah Pilkey, umfundi ophothule elebhu ka-Powell, wangitjengisa bona ngingenza njani lokhu. Watjala i-fungus ebangela ukubola kwebhaktheriya esitjeni esincani seplastiki se-petri. Ngalendlela evalekileko, igciwane le-orenji ephaphathekileko libukeka lingakabi yingozi begodu lihle khulu. Kunzima ukucabanga bona mbangela yokuhlongakala kwabantu abanengi nokubhujiswa.
Indlulamithi ephasini yaguqa ngamadolo phasi, yatshwaya ingcenye yamamilimitha amahlanu yesihlahlana esincani, yenza ukusikeka okuthathu okuqondileko nge-scalpel, begodu yagcoba isilonda. Wazivala ngefilimu yeplastiki. Wathi: “Kufana nebhande.” Njengombana umthi lo “wokulawula” ongajamelani, ulindele bona ukutheleleka kwe-orenji kuzokurhatjheka msinyana ukusuka endaweni yokugonywa begodu ekugcineni kuzungeze iinqubu ezincani. Wangitjengisa imithi enamajini wekoroyi egade ayilapha ngaphambilini. Ukutheleleka kuphelela lapho okusikiweko khona, njengemilebe emincani e-orenji eduze nomlomo omncani.
Ngomnyaka ka-2013, u-Maynard no-Powell bamemezela ipumelelo yabo kuRhubhululo le-Transgenic: ngemva kweminyaka eli-109 ngemva kokutholakala kwesifo se-American chestnut, benza imithi ebonakala ngasuthi iyazivikela, ngitjho nanyana ingahlaselwa mithamo emikhulu ye-fungi ebunako. Ukuhlonipha umnikeli wabo wokuthoma nophana khulu, watjala imali engaba yi-$250,000, begodu abarhubhululi bebathiya imithi ngegama lakhe. Lokhu kubizwa ngokuthi yi-Darling 58.
Umhlangano weminyaka yoke we-New York Chapter ye-American Chestnut Foundation bewubanjelwe ehhotela elincani ngaphandle kwe-New Paltz ngeMgqibelo enemvula ngoMgwengweni wee-2018. Abantu abangaba ma-50 babuthene ndawonye. Umhlangano lo bewumhlangano wezesayensi begodu bewumhlangano wokutjhentjhana. Ngemva kwekamelo elincani lomhlangano, amalunga atjhentjhana ngezikhwama ze-Ziploc ezizele amantongomani. Umhlangano lo bewungowokuthoma eminyakeni ema-28 lapho u-Darling nofana u-Maynard azange abe khona. Imiraro yezamaphilo yenza bona bobabili bangahlali. "Besisolo sikwenza lokhu isikhathi eside, begodu pheze qobe mnyaka sithula malungana nabahlongakeleko," u-Allen Nichols, umongameli wesiqhema, wangitjela. Nanyana kunjalo, umuzwa usenethemba: umuthi otjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo sele udlule iminyaka eminengi yokuhlolwa kokuphepha nokusebenza kuhle.
Amalunga wesahluko anikela isingeniso esinabileko sesimo sesihlahla ngasinye esikhulu se-chestnut esihlala e-New York State. U-Pilkey nabanye abafundi abathweswe iziqu baveza indlela yokubuthelela nokubulunga impova, indlela yokutjala ama-chestnuts ngaphasi kwamalambu wangaphakathi, nendlela yokuzalisa ihlabathi ngokutheleleka kwe-blight ukungezelela ipilo yemithi. Abantu abanesifuba se-cashew, inengi labo elifaka impova begodu litjale imithi yabo, babuza imibuzo kibososayensi abasesebatjha.
U-Bowell walala phasi, afake into ebonakala ngasuthi yiyunifomu engasisemthethweni yesahluko lesi: ihembe elinentamo elifakwe ngaphakathi kwejini. Ukuphishekela kwakhe umkhumbulo oyedwa-umsebenzi weminyaka ematjhumi amathathu ohlelwe ngokuya ngomnqopho ka-Herb Darling wokubuyisa ama-chestnuts-akukavami hlangana nabososayensi bezefundo, abavame ukwenza irhubhululo emjikelezweni weminyaka emihlanu, bese kuthi imiphumela ethembisako inikelwa kwabanye bona ithengiswe. U-Don Leopold, engisebenza naye emNyangweni weSayensi yeBhoduluko nezamaHlathi ka-Powell, wangitjela wathi: “Utjheja khulu begodu uyaziphatha kuhle.” “Ufaka amakhetheni. Akaphazanyiswa zizinto ezinengi kangaka. Lokha irhubhululo naliragela phambili, abaphathi be-State University of New York (SUNY) bathintana naye begodu babawa ilungelo lobunikazi lomuthi wakhe ukwenzela bona iyunivesithi izuze kiwo, kodwana u-Powell wala. Wathi imithi etjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo ifana nama-chestnuts wekadeni.
Kodwana wabayelelisa: Ngemva kokunqoba iinqabo ezinengi zethekhnikhi, imithi etjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo ingaqalana netjhijilo elikhulu: urhulumende we-US. Emavikini ambalwa adlulileko, u-Powell wathumela ifayela elingaba makhasi ama-3,000 kuMnyango wezokuLima we-US we-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, ophethe umthwalo wokuvuma iintjalo ezitjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo. Lokhu kuthoma ikambiso yokuvunywa kwe-ejensi: buyekeza isibawo, cela imibono yomphakathi, yenza isitatimende somthelela wemvelo, cela imibono yomphakathi godu bese wenza isiqunto. Umsebenzi lo ungathatha iminyaka eminengi. Nangabe kungekho siqunto, iphrojekthi ingajama. (Isikhathi sokuthoma sokuphawula komphakathi asikavulwa.)
Abarhubhululi bahlela ukuletha ezinye iimbawo ku-Food and Drug Administration ukwenzela bona ihlole ukuphepha kokudla kwamantongomani atjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo, begodu i-Ejensi yokuVikelwa kweBhoduluko izokubuyekeza umthelela wesihlahla lesi ngaphasi komThetho we-Federal Pesticide, otlhogeka kizo zoke iintjalo ezitjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo. yezinto eziphilako. "Lokhu kuyinkimbinkimbi ukudlula isayensi!" kwatjho omunye ebalalelini.
"Iye." U-Powell wavuma. “Isayensi iyakarisa. Iyadanisa.” (Wangitjela ngokukhamba kwesikhathi: "Ukutjhejwa ziinhlangano ezintathu ezihlukileko kuyinto eyeqileko. Kwamambala kubulala ukusungulwa kwezinto ezitjha ekuvikeleni ibhoduluko.")
Ukufakazela bona umuthi wabo uphephile, isiqhema saka-Powell senza iinhlahlubo ezihlukahlukeneko. Bapha i-oxalate oxidase empova yeenyosi. Balinganisa ukukhula kwe-fungi ezuzisako ehlabathini. Batjhiya amakari emanzini begodu bahlola umthelela wawo ku-t. Akukho miphumela emimbi eyabonwa kizo zoke iimfundo-eqinisweni, ukusebenza kokudla okutjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo kungcono kunamakari weminye imithi engakatjhugululwa. Abososayensi bathumela amantongomani e-Oak Ridge National Laboratory nakwamanye amalabhorethri e-Tennessee bona ahlaziywe, begodu akhenge bathole umehluko amantongomani akhiqizwa mithi engakatjhugululwa.
Imiphumela enjalo ingaqinisekisa abalawuli. Ngokuqinisekileko angeze bathokozisa iintjhabatjhaba eziphikisana nama-GMO. U-John Dougherty, usosayensi othathe umhlalaphasi we-Monsanto, wanikela ngeenkonzo zokubonisana ku-Powell simahla. Wabiza abaphikisi laba ngokuthi "baphikisi." Eminyakeni ematjhumi edlulileko, iinhlangano zezebhoduluko beziyelelisa ngokuthi ukuthutha amajini hlangana nemihlobo ehlobene kude kuzokuba nemiphumela engakahlosiwe, njengokwenza “ukhula olukhulu” oludlula iintjalo zemvelo, nofana ukuletha amajini wangaphandle angabanga umsingathi. Godu batshwenyeke ngokuthi amakhamphani asebenzisa ubunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo ukuthola amalungelo wobunikazi nokulawula iinlwana.
Njenganje, u-Powell wathi akhenge athole imali ngqo emithonjeni yebubulo, begodu waphikelela ngokuthi umnikelo wemali elabhorethri "awubophekile." Kodwana, u-Brenda Jo McManama, umhleli wenhlangano ebizwa ngokuthi "Indigenous Environmental Network", waveza isivumelwano ngo-2010 lapho i-Monsanto yanikela i-Chestnut Foundation ne-ejensi esebenzisana nayo i-New York Isahluko sagunyaza amalungelo wobunikazi amabili wokutjhugulula izakhi zofuzo. (U-Powell wathi iminikelo yebubulo, okufaka hlangana i-Monsanto, ibalelwa ngaphasi kwe-4% yemali yayo yokusebenza.) UMcManama usola bona i-Monsanto (eyathengwa yi-Bayer ngo-2018) ifuna ngasese ukuthola ilungelo lobunikazi ngokusekela lokho okubonakala ngasuthi kuzakuba yinto ezako. Iphrojekthi yokuzidela. "UMonsan mumbi," watjho ngokutjho ngokutjho.
U-Powell wathi ilungelo lobunikazi esivumelwaneni saka-2010 sele liphelile, begodu ngokuveza imininingwana yomuthi wakhe emitlolweni yezesayensi, uqinisekise bona umuthi angeze waba nelungelo lobunikazi. Kodwana wabona ukuthi lokhu angeze kwaqeda koke ukutshwenyeka. Wathi, "Ngiyazi bona omunye umuntu angathi uyisithiyo se-Monsanto." "Ungenzani? Akunanto ongayenza."
Eminyakeni emihlanu eyadlulako, abarholi be-American Chestnut Foundation baphetha ngokuthi angeze bakghona ukufikelela iinhloso zabo ngokuhlanganisa kwaphela, njeke bamukela ihlelo lobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo laka-Powell. Isinqumo lesi sabanga ukungavumelani. Ngenyanga kaNtaka 2019, umengameli we-Massachusetts-Rhode Island Chapter ye-Foundation, u-Lois Breault-Melican, watjhiya umsebenzi, waveza i-Global Justice Ecology Project (Global Justice Project), ihlangano elwisana nobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo ese-Buffalo. Iphrojekthi ye-Ekholoji yobulungiswa) ingxabano; umyeni wakhe u-Denis Melican naye watjhiya ibhodo. U-Dennis wangitjela bona abathandanako bebatshwenyeke khulu ngokuthi ama-chestnuts ka-Powell angaba “yi-Trojan horse”, okuvule indlela yokuthi eminye imithi yezokurhweba ithuthukiswe ngokusebenzisa ubunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo.
U-Susan Offutt, isazi sezomnotho sezokulima, usebenza njengosihlalo weKomidi ye-National Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, eyenze irhubhululo nge-biotechnology yamahlathi ngo-2018. Waveza bona ikambiso karhulumende yokulawula igxile endabeni encani yeengozi zezinto eziphilako, begodu pheze azange icabangele ukutshwenyeka okukhulu kwezenhlalakahle, njengalezo ezilwisana ne-MOG. "Iyini inani langaphakathi lehlathi?" wabuza, njengesibonelo somraro, ikambiso leyo azange irarululwe. "Ingabe amahlathi anamagugu wawo? Ingabe sinesibopho sokuziphatha sokutjheja lokhu lokha nasenza iinqunto zokungenelela?"
Inengi labososayensi engikhulume nabo abanasizathu sokutshwenyeka ngemithi ka-Powell, ngombana ihlathi libe nomonakalo omkhulu: ukugawulwa kwemithi, ukumbiwa, ukuthuthukiswa, kanye neenlwanyana ezingapheliko namalwelwe abhubhisa imithi. Hlangana nazo, ukubuna kwe-chestnut kufakazelwe bona kungumnyanya wokuvula. "Sihlala sethula izinto eziphilako ezitjha ezipheleleko," kutjho u-Gary Lovett, isazi sezemvelo samahlathi e-Cary Ecosystem Institute e-Millbrook, e-New York. "Umthelela wama-chestnut atjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo mncani khulu."
U-Donald Waller, isazi sezemvelo samahlathi esanda kuthatha umhlalaphasi e-University of Wisconsin-Madison, waragela phambili. Wangitjela wathi: "Ngakelinye ihlangothi, ngiveza ukulinganisela okuncani hlangana nobungozi nomvuzo. Ngakelinye ihlangothi, ngihlala ngizikhuhla ikhanda lami ngeengozi." Umuthi lo otjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo ungaba yingozi ehlathini. Ngokuphikisako, "ikhasi elingezansi komvuzo liphuphuma nge-inki." Wathi i-chestnut ejamelana nokubuna ekugcineni izokuthumba ihlathi elihlaselweko. Abantu badinga ithemba. Abantu badinga amatshwayo. ”
U-Powell uhlala athulile, kodwana abathandabuzako ngobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo bangamthukuthelisa. Wathi: “Azizwakali kimi.” "Azisekelwe esayensi." Lokha abonjiniyela nabakhiqiza iinkoloyi ezingcono nofana ama-smartphone, akekho okhonondako, njeke ufuna ukwazi bona khuyini okungakalungi ngemithi eyakhiwe ngcono. "Leli lithulusi elingasiza," kutsho u-Powell. “Kubayini uthi angeze sakghona ukusebenzisa ithulusi leli? Singasebenzisa isikrufudrayiva se-Phillips, kodwana ingasi isikrufudrayiva esijayelekileko, begodu ngokuphambene nalokho?”
Ekuthomeni kwenyanga kaNobayeni ka-2018, ngakhamba no-Powell esitetjhini se-mild field esewula ye-Syracuse. Bekathemba bona ingomuso lomhlobo we-American chestnut lizakukhula. Indawo le ipheze inganamuntu, begodu ngenye yeendawo ezimbalwa lapho imithi ivunyelwe ukukhula khona. Amasimu amade we-pine ne-larch, umkhiqizo wephrojekthi yokurhubhulula esele isikhathi eside ilahliwe, atjhinga ngepumalanga, kude nomoya okhona, okwenza indawo leyo ibe nomuzwa othusako.
Umrhubhululi u-Andrew Newhouse welabhorethri ka-Powell sele asebenza ngomunye wemithi emihle khulu yabososayensi, i-wild chestnut evela eningizimu ye-Virginia. Umuthi lo ungaba ziinyawo ezima-25 ubude begodu ukhula esivandeni sama-chestnut esihlelwe ngokungakahleleki esizungezwe lithango lenyamazana elingamamitha ali-10. Isikhwama sesikolo besibotjhwe emaphethelweni wamanye amagatja wesihlahla. U-Newhouse wahlathulula bona isikhwama seplastiki sangaphakathi besivaleleke ngempova ye-Darling 58 abososayensi abafake isibawo ngoMgwengweni, lokha isikhwama se-mesh yensimbi sangaphandle sigcina ama-squirrels kude nokukhula kwama-burrs. Ihlelo loke lingaphasi kokugada okuqinileko mNyango wezokuLima we-United States; ngaphambi kokususwa komthetho, impova nofana amantongomani avela emithini enamajini afakwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo ethangweni nofana elabhorethri yomrhubhululi kufanele ahlukaniswe.
I-Newhouse yasebenzisa isikere sokuthena esibuyiselwa emuva emagatjeni. Ukudosa ngentambo, i-blade yaphuka begodu isikhwama sawa. U-Newhouse msinyana wathuthela egatjeni elilandelako elinamasaka begodu waphinda ikambiso leyo. U-Powell wabuthelela iinkhwama eziwileko wazifaka esikhwameni esikhulu seplastiki, njengokuphatha izinto eziyingozi.
Ngemva kokubuyela elabhorethri, u-Newhouse no-Hannah Pilkey bathulula isikhwama begodu msinyana bakhipha amantongomani ansundu emabhuleni ahlaza satjani. Batjheja bona ameva angangeni esikhunjeni, okuyingozi emsebenzini ekurhubhululeni i-chestnut. Esikhathini esidlulileko, bebathanda woke amantongomani aligugu atjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo. Kulokhu, ekugcineni baba nokunengi: ngaphezu kwe-1,000. "Soke senza imidanso emincani ejabulisako," kutjho u-Pirkey.
Ngemva kwemini, u-Powell wathatha ama-chestnuts wayisa ehhovisini laka-Neil Patterson egumbini lokungena. Bekulilanga labantu bendabuko (iLanga le-Columbus), begodu u-Patterson, uMsizi womNqophisi we-ESF's Center for Indigenous Peoples and the Environment, bekasanda kubuya ekota yekhampasi, lapho arhola khona umtjengiso wokudla kwabantu bomdabu. Abantwana bakhe ababili nomzukulu badlala ngekhomphyutha ehhovisini. Woke umuntu wahluba begodu wadla amantongomani. "Ziseluhlaza kancani," kutjho u-Powell ngokuzisola.
Isipho saka-Powell sisebenza ngezinto ezinengi. Usabalalisa imbewu, ngethemba lokusebenzisa inethiwekhi ka-Patterson ukutjala ama-chestnut eendaweni ezitjha, lapho angathola khona impova etjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo eminyakeni embalwa. Wabuye wazibandakanya nokusebenzisana kuhle khulu.
Lokha u-Patterson nakaqatjhwe yi-ESF ngo-2014, wafunda bona u-Powell bekalinga ngemithi eyenziwe ngendlela yofuzo, ebegade iqhele ngamamayela ambalwa ukusuka e-Onondaga Nation Resident Territory. Lokhu kokugcina kutholakala ehlathini elingamakhilomitha ambalwa eningizimu ye-Syracuse. U-Patterson wabona bona nangabe iphrojekthi le iphumelele, amajini wokujamelana namalwelwe azokungena enarheni bese ahlangana nama-chestnut aseleko lapho, ngaleyindlela atjhugulule ihlathi eliqakathekileko ebuntwini be-Onodaga. Ubuye wezwa ngokutshwenyeka okutjhukumisela iintjhabatjhaba, okufakahlangana ezinye ezivela emiphakathini yomdabu, ukuphikisana nezinto eziphilako ezitjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo kwenye indawo. Ukwenza isibonelo, ngo-2015, isitjhaba se-Yurok savimbela ukubekelwa kwe-GMO e-Northern California ngebanga lokutshwenyeka ngokusilaphazeka kweentjalo zaso kanye nokudoba kwe-salmon.
"Ngiyabona bona lokhu kwenzeke kithi lapha; kufuze sibe nengcoco," uPatterson wangitjela. Emhlanganweni we-Environmental Protection Agency wango-2015 obanjwe yi-ESF, u-Powell wanikela ikulumo ehlelwe kuhle emalungwini wabantu bomdabu be-New York. Ngemva kwenkulumo, u-Patterson wakhumbula ukuthi abarholi abanengi bathi: “Kufanele sitjale imithi!” Ithando labo lamangalisa u-Patterson. Wathi: “Bengingakulindele.”
Kodwana, iingcoco zakamuva zitjengise bona bambalwa kibo abakhumbula indima umuthi we-chestnut ebewudlalwa esikweni lawo lesintu. Irhubhululo elilandelako laka-Patterson lamtjela bona ngesikhathi lapho ukutjharagana kwezenhlalakahle nokubhujiswa kwemvelo kwenzeka ngesikhathi sinye, urhulumende we-US bekasebenzisa ihlelo elibanzi lokuqeda abantu ngokukatelela nokuhlanganisa abantu, begodu umtlhago sele ufikile. Njengezinye izinto ezinengi, isiko le-chestnut lendawo sele linyamalele. U-Patterson wathola nokuthi imibono ngobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo ihluka khulu. Umenzi weentonga ze-lacrosse ze-Onoda u-Alfie Jacques uzimisele ukwenza iintonga ngeengodo ze-chestnut begodu uyayisekela iphrojekthi. Abanye bacabanga bona ubungozi bukhulu khulu begodu ngalokho baphikisana nemithi.
U-Patterson uyazwisisa ubujamo obubili. Mhlapha nje wathi kimi: “Kufana nomakhalekhukhwini nomntanami.” Uveze ukuthi umntanakhe ubuyela ekhaya avela esikolweni ngebanga lomkhuhlane we-coronavirus. "Ngelinye ilanga ngenza koke okusemandlenabo; ukobana ngibagcine bathintana, bayafunda. Ngelanga elilandelako, asilahle izinto lezo." Kodwana iminyaka yokukhulumisana no-Powell yehlisa ukungabaza kwakhe. Mhlapha nje, wafunda bona inzalo ephakathi nendawo yemithi yama-58 ye-Darling angeze yaba namajini angenisiweko, okutjho bona ama-chestnuts weganga wokuthoma azokuragela phambili nokukhula ehlathini. U-Patterson wathi lokhu kwaqeda umraro omkhulu.
Ngesikhathi sivakatjhela ngoNobayeni, wangitjela bona isizathu sokuthi kubayini angakwazi ukusekela ngokuzeleko iphrojekthi ye-GM kungenxa yokuthi bekangazi bona u-Powell unendaba na nabantu abasebenzisana nomuthi nofana umuthi. "Angazi bona yini ekhona kuye," kutjho u-Patterson, ashaya isifuba sakhe. Wathi kwaphela nangabe ubudlelwano hlangana nomuntu ne-chestnut bungabuyiselwa, kuyatlhogeka bona sibuyiselwe isihlahla lesi.
Ukuze afeze lokhu, wathi uhlela ukusebenzisa amantongomani u-Powell amnike wona ukwenza i-chestnut pudding namafutha. Uzokuletha ukudla oku enarheni ye-Onondaga begodu ameme abantu bona bathole kabutjha ukunambitheka kwazo kwakade. Wathi: “Ngithemba kunjalo, kufana nokubingelela umngani omdala. Kutlhogeka bona ungene ebhesini ukusuka lapho owama khona esikhathini esidlulileko.”
U-Powell wathola isipho se-$3.2 yezigidi esivela ku-Templeton World Charity Foundation ngoTjhirhweni, okuzokwenza bona u-Powell akghone ukuragela phambili njengombana akhambisa ama-ejensi alawulako begodu anwebe ukutjheja kwakhe irhubhululo ukusuka ku-genetics ukuya eqinisweni langempela lokulungiswa kwendawo yoke. Nangabe urhulumende angamnikela isibusiso, u-Powell nabososayensi be-American Chestnut Foundation bazokuthoma ukuyivumela bona ithuthuke. Impova kanye namajini wayo angezelelweko azokuphephethekiswa nofana afakwe eentweni ezilindileko zeminye imithi, begodu isiphetho sama-chestnuts atjhugululwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo sizokwenzeka ngaphandle kokulawulwa kwebhoduluko lokuhlola. Nakuthathwa bona ijini lingagcinwa kokubili esimini naselabhorethri, lokhu akuqiniseki, begodu lizokurhatjheka ehlathini-leli liphuzu le-ekholoji abososayensi abalifunako kodwana abavukela umbuso bayakwesaba.
Ngemva kobana kube nesihlahla se-chestnut esikhululekileko, ungathenga? Iye, u-Newhouse wathi, lokho bekulihlelo. Abarhubhululi babuzwa qobe veke bona imithi itholakala nini.
Ephasini lapho u-Powell, u-Newhouse nalabo asebenza nabo bahlala khona, kulula ukuzwa ngasuthi inarha yoke ilindele isihlahla sabo. Kodwana, ukutjhayela ibanga elifitjhani ukuya enyakatho ukusuka eplasini lokurhubhulula ukudlula edorobheni le-Syracuse kukhumbuza bona kwenzeke amatjhuguluko amakhulu kangangani emvelweni nomphakathi solo kwanyamalala ama-chestnuts we-America. I-Chestnut Heights Drive itholakala edorobheni elincani enyakatho ye-Syracuse. Mgwaqo ovamileko wokuhlala oneendlela ezibanzi, utjani obuhle, begodu ngezinye iinkhathi imithi emincani yokuhlobisa egcwele igceke langaphambili. . Ikhamphani yamapulangwe ayitlhogi ukuvuselelwa kwama-chestnuts. Umnotho wezokulima ozijameleko osekelwe ema-chestnuts sele unyamalele ngokupheleleko. Pheze akekho umuntu okhipha amantongomani athambileko nasudu emabhuleni aqinileko khulu. Inengi labantu kungenzeka lingazi bona akukho okulahlekileko ehlathini.
Ngama ngadla isidlo sakusihlwa sepikinikhi ngaseLake Onondaga ngaphasi komthunzi womuthi omkhulu womlotha omhlophe. Umuthi lo bewuhlaselwe ma-borers ahlaza satjani. Ngiyazibona iimbobo ezenziwe ziinunwana emagxolweni. Ithoma ukulahlekelwa mahlamvu wayo begodu ingafa bese ibhidlika ngemva kweminyaka embalwa. Ukubuya lapha ngivela ekhaya lami e-Maryland, ngatjhayela ngadlula iinkulungwana zemithi yomlotha efileko, enamagatja we-pitchfork angenalutho aphakama eceleni komgwaqo.
E-Appalachia, ikhamphani iklwebhe imithi endaweni ekulu ye-Bitlahua ukuthola amalahle ngaphasi. Ihliziyo yelizwe lamalahle ihlangana nehliziyo yelizwe langaphambilini le-chestnut. I-American Chestnut Foundation isebenze neenhlangano ezatjala imithi emigodini yamalahle engasasebenziko, begodu imithi yama-chestnut sele ikhula eenkulungwaneni zama-acre wendawo ethintwe yihlekelele. Imithi le yingcenye yama-hybrid ajamelana nokubola kwamagciwani, kodwana ingaba yinto efanako nesizukulwana esitjha semithi ngelinye ilanga engancintisana namahlathi amakhulu wekadeni.
NgoMeyi odlulileko, ukugxila kwe-carbon dioxide emkhathini kwafinyelela kuma-414.8 weengcenye ngesigidi kokuthoma. Njengeminye imithi, ubudisi obungekho emanzini bama-American chestnuts bungaba yingcenye yekhabhoni. Zimbalwa izinto ongazitjala esiqetjhaneni sendawo ezingadonsa ikhabhoni emoyeni msinya ukudlula umuthi we-chestnut okhulako. Ngalokhu engqondweni, i-atikili egadangiswe ku-Wall Street Journal ngomnyaka ophelileko yaphakamisa, "Asibe nelinye ipulazi lama-chestnut."